summary
- Empress Theodora rose from actress to powerful Byzantine leader, influencing women’s rights and legal reforms.
- Justinian and Theodora expanded the empire and introduced crucial reforms.
- Known for her political acumen and defense of Monophysites, Theodora’s legacy endures in Byzantine history and art.
Empress Theodora is a relatively little-known political figure who deserves to be part of common knowledge. Theodora’s strong commitment to her beliefs and political skills made her one of the most influential Empresses of the Byzantine Empire. Her husband, Emperor Justinian I, treated her as an equal partner, a rare occurrence in history, especially in the first century. Their partnership expanded the Byzantine Empire and laid the foundation for the development of human rights, particularly women’s rights. Empress Theodora’s juridical reforms introduced greater transparency and established a framework for protecting the most vulnerable members of society.
Empress Theodora’s Early Life as an Actress
Relatively little is known of Theodora’s early life. The information primarily comes from Procopius’ Secret History, written in 558. Published posthumously, the Byzantine historian’s book is a scathing assessment of Justinian and Theodora’s reign, dotted with colorful claims about the public actions and private lives of the royal couple.
Theodora was born in 500 CE and had Greek origins. In Secret History, Procopius reveals that her father, Acacius, was a bear keeper at the Hippodrome in Constantinople. The name of Theodora’s mother is not recorded. All that’s known about her is that she was a dancer and actress.
Theodora had two sisters, Anastasia and Comito. After Acacius’s death, her mother remarried and taught her daughters how to perform on stage. At the age of 15, Theodora became an actress, an activity that was mostly associated with adult entertainment and prostitution at the time. Indeed, Procopius claimed the future empress worked in a brothel.
At the age of 18, Theodora met Hecebolus, a senior official in the Roman government, and became his concubine. She then traveled to North Africa after Hecebolus took over the Libyan Pentapolis. However, their relationship appeared to be short-lived. Hecebolus mistreated Theodora and eventually abandoned her.
Theodora settled in Alexandria, Egypt. It is believed that during her stay in Alexandria, she met the Miaphysite Patriarch Timothy III, joined the ascetic community near the city, and got closely acquainted with Monophysitism. Monophysitism is a Christological doctrine that posits Christ has only one nature: the divine. In the Byzantine Empire, the Monophysites were frequently persecuted.
Strong in her religious beliefs, Theodora returned to Constantinople in 522 and made a living as a wool spinner. During this time, she met Justinian, the heir to the throne of the Byzantine Empire and her future husband.
Imperial Marriage: Becoming the Byzantine Empress
Although the circumstances of Justinian’s first meeting with Theodora are unknown, historical sources reveal that he was impressed by Theodora’s beauty, and she became his mistress. However, a Roman law from Constantine’s reign prohibited nobles from marrying actresses. The ruler of the Byzantine Empire at that time was Justin, the uncle and predecessor of Justinian.
Influenced by the heir to the throne, Justinian, Emperor Justin passed new legislation, decreeing that rehabilitated actresses could afterward legitimately marry outside their status if permitted by the emperor. By the same regulation, the daughters of these actresses were likewise permitted to wed men of any status. Thus, Theodora’s illegitimate daughter (whose name has since been forgotten) was allowed to wed a member of the royal family. According to Procopius, Theodora gave birth to a daughter while living in North Africa with Hecebolus.
In 525, soon after Justin’s law was passed, Justinian married Theodora. Before their marriage, Theodora’s status was elevated to that of a patrician, as only patricians could marry patricians. Two years after their marriage, in 527, Justinian ascended to the throne, and Theodora became the empress of the Eastern Roman Empire. She actively participated in state councils, sharing her visions, preferences, and political strategies with her husband.
Despite never being appointed as a co-regent, Theodora maintained great authority due to her brilliance and impeccable political sense. She was a determined woman with a great capacity for leadership. Her call for a forceful (and military) response during the Nika riots in 532 resulted in the suppression of the uprising and probably saved the empire.
The Nika Riots
In January 535, during a chariot race in Constantinople’s Hippodrome, the Blues and the Greens, two opposing factions, sparked a riot.
Competitors in various sporting events, especially chariot racing, were divided into factions differentiated by the color of their uniform. In Justinian’s reign, the only factions with significant influence were the Blues and Greens.
These two groups funded the races and held significant political power, as they cooperated with the imperial forces to keep order during the games. At the same time, they were supported by the royal families, including those who claimed the Byzantine throne.
The race began on January 13, 535. By the end of the game, the crowd’s chants shifted from shouts of “Blue” or “Green” to “Nίκα” (Nika), meaning “Conquer!”. The chant quickly became a rallying cry, and the crowd began to assault the royal palace. For the next five days, much of the city was under fire.
The main reason behind the revolt was the increase in taxes. The revenue collected from the new taxes was meant to fund Justinian’s ambitious plans to extend the Byzantine territories and implement extensive architectural projects. Unable to contain the situation, most political officials advised Justinian and Theodora to flee the city. The rioters freed prisoners and set fire to the buildings and key facilities. The Hagia Sophia and several other important monuments were quickly engulfed in fire, along with a sizeable area of the city.
On January 18, Theodora attended the Imperial Council meeting discussing the Nika riot. She addressed the council with the following words:
“Whether or not a woman should give an example of courage to men is neither here nor there…I think that flight, even if it brings us to safety, is not in our interest. Every man born to see the light of day must die. But that one who has been emperor should become an exile I cannot bear.”
Theodora’s advice to stay and try to save the city using extensive military resources probably saved the Byzantine Empire from political chaos. Justinian and Theodora rebuilt Constantinople after the Nika uprising. They constructed aqueducts, bridges, and more than 25 churches. They also rebuilt the Hagia Sophia.
Social Reforms & the Medieval Origins of Women’s Rights
Empress Theodora played a pivotal role in the early development of women’s rights. Her experience as a young woman marginalized by the institutional system of that time likely pushed her to work on the improvement of women’s rights in the Byzantine Empire.
She elaborated on the Corpus Juris Civilis, a collection of juridical reforms introduced by Justinian and earlier Roman laws. Theodora’s contributions to the Corpus Juris Civilis laid the foundation for the Western legal framework for women’s rights, including the English Common Law, the American Constitution, and even contemporary international public law.
Additionally, under Empress Theodora, rape became punishable by death. No matter their position or status, everyone present during the assault was affected by this rule, and the perpetrator’s property was handed over to the victim.
Empress Theodora also ensured women had their say during divorce settlements, outlawed forced prostitution, and enabled women to inherit and possess property. On the Asian side of the empire, beyond the Dardanelles, Empress Theodora established sanctuaries for prostitution and assault victims and provided shelter and food for those without homes.
Empress Theodora remained a steadfast defender of the non-Orthodox Christians and tried to mitigate the ill-treatment of the Monophysites. Even though her husband appeared to be a devout Orthodox Christian, Empress Theodora’s influence on Justinian made the reconciliation process possible.
Empress Theodora protected Monophysites and helped them find safer places to pray and perform religious rituals. She established a Miaphysite monastery in the ancient city of Sykae and influenced the appointment of a Miaphysite leader, Anthimus, as the Patriarch of Constantinople.
Empress Theodora & Procopius: Myths vs. History
Procopius’ Secret History casts a shadow on Theodora’s achievements and legacy. The historian, for example, claims the harsh conditions in the shelters forced some women to seek escape by leaping over the walls.
On the other hand, other accounts, notably the one by chronicler John Malalas, report that Theodora “freed the girls from the yoke of their wretched slavery.” Later works by the Egyptian Coptic bishop John of Nikiu note that the empress “put an end to the prostitution of women, and gave orders for their expulsion from every place.”
At the same time, many believed that Theodora was brutal in eliminating her political rivals, including anyone who threatened her, her husband, or their authority. Procopius, for example, emphasized her complex relationship with Belisarius, a leading Byzantine general who was seen as a potential successor in the event of Justinian’s death.
However, it is vital to note that these assumptions lack supporting evidence beyond the accounts in Procopius’ Secret History. It is widely known that Procopius harbored resentment toward Empress Theodora, labeling her and her husband as the worst Byzantine Empire officials ever.
It’s also perhaps crucial to be mindful of the fact that all of the information we have on Theodora was written by men, and that in Byzantine culture, any woman who played a role other than that of a traditional, obedient woman would have been disapproved of or even demonized.
Empress Theodora’s Lasting Legacy
In 548, Empress Theodora died, probably due to cancer or gangrene. Justinian was shattered by her loss, and he never remarried. Empress Theodora and Justinian did not have any children. However, her illegitimate daughter and grandsons were granted top positions in the administration by Justinian.
Despite his personal religious preferences, Justinian continued to defend the Monophysites as Empress Theodora would have done. Even though he continued to be a capable leader after she died, it was obvious that the emperor was never as powerful as he had been when Theodora was by his side and they ruled the empire together. Indeed, it is significant that after Theodora’s death, Justinian passed hardly any new important laws but continued to be an advocate for women’s rights.
One of the magnificent churches the emperor and empress had built in Constantinople, the Church of the Holy Apostles, served as the final resting place for Empress Theodora. Beautiful mosaics of Theodora and Justinian still exist today in the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, northern Italy, which was finished a year before she passed away.
