A History of Gibraltar: The Rock & the Ages

On the western edge of the Mediterranean lies the tiny peninsula of Gibraltar. Dominating this peninsula is the Rock of Gibraltar, symbolizing the point where the Mediterranean and the Atlantic meet. Its strategic value is so significant that, throughout history, Gibraltar has been besieged at least 14 times!

A rocky outcrop of just 2.6 square miles, Gibraltar is of vital strategic importance and has a history that spans thousands of years, from the ancient Phoenicians to the British who own it today.

The story of Gibraltar doesn’t start with the Phoenicians, Greeks, or even the Romans. In fact, it doesn’t even start with Homo sapiens at all! It begins with our cousins, the Neanderthals, who made the Rock of Gibraltar their homes there many tens or even hundreds of thousands of years ago. When exactly they started living there is unknown.

Making their homes in the caves around the Rock, Neanderthals lived there on a diet rich in seafood. The water around the Rock was much shallower during this era, and the Neanderthals would have been able to source food from the many rock pools surrounding the area.

The most recent evidence points to Neanderthals living there as recently as 28,000 to 24,000 years ago, long after they went extinct in the rest of Europe. It is posited that Gibraltar represents the last place inhabited by Neanderthals before they went completely extinct.

Ancient History

The Rock of Gibraltar held religious value for the ancient Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans.

The Greeks referred to the Rock as one of the two Pillars of Hercules, and, like the other ancient civilizations around the Mediterranean, Gibraltar represented the farthest reaches of the known world. It was there that the Mediterranean ended, and the vast expanse of the Atlantic began. There are few notable features on the African side of the Strait of Gibraltar, and the identity of the southern pillar is debated but, ultimately, unknown.

The Romans called the Rock Mons Calpe, which is suggested to be derived from the Phoenician word Kalph, meaning “hollowed out.” The Roman name likely references the abundance of caves found in the limestone cliffs surrounding Gibraltar.

Oftentimes, sailors traversing the dangerous waters in the Strait of Gibraltar would place offerings such as pottery and jewelry to the gods in order to secure safe passage. At its narrowest point, this strait is just eight miles from north to south, with Europe on the northern point and Africa in the south.

While the Rock and its immediate surroundings were not considered hospitable for any settlement, the Phoenicians did found the settlement of Carteia at the northern end of the Bay of Gibraltar in 950 BCE. After several hundred years, the town fell under the control of the Carthaginians and then the Romans, who vanquished the Carthaginians in the Second Punic War. It was eventually sacked by the Vandals in 409 CE, after which it was abandoned. The area, however, was subsequently controlled by the Visigoths.

While Visigothic rule in the Iberian Peninsula descended into a state of civil war, the Umayyad Caliphate took advantage of the situation. An army of Berbers under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the strait from Africa and landed somewhere near the Bay of Gibraltar. The following invasion would bring virtually all of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim rule.

In honor of the commanding general, the Rock of Gibraltar was named Jebel Tariq (Mount Tariq), a name that would evolve over time into “Gibraltar.”

Around 1160, Gibraltar became fully fortified. In that year, Abdu al-Mu’min crossed the Strait of Gibraltar. He landed at the Rock and renamed it Djebel-al-Fath (Mount of Victory), but the name did not stick. Its former name proved to be far too popular. He ordered the construction of a fortified city, which he named Medina-al-Fath (City of Victory).

For several hundred years, the Muslims ruled Spain, fighting off Christian attempts to reassert control. In 1309, Gibraltar came under siege for what is believed to be the first time in its history. The armies of Castile and Aragon launched a campaign against the Emirate of Granada, which held possession of Gibraltar.

Gibraltar fell to the Castilians under the leadership of Ferdinand IV after a month-long siege. Understanding the strategic importance of his prize, Ferdinand ordered more defenses to be built, including a keep and a dockyard, and he encouraged Christians to settle there.

Six years later, Gibraltar would survive being besieged by the Nasrid Moors, but in 1333, Gibraltar was again besieged by Muslim forces. Before the Castilian King Alfonso Alfonso XI could send a relief force, the Gibraltarian inhabitants surrendered to the Moors of Fez. The relief force that did arrive attempted to lay siege to Gibraltar briefly before a truce was called.

Alfonso XI attempted to lay siege to the city again in 1349, but his efforts were dashed by the arrival of the Black Death, which decimated Europe’s population. Thus ended the Fifth Siege of Gibraltar.

In 1374, the Marinid Moors of Fez handed Gibraltar over to the Nasrid Moors of Granada. In 1410, the Gibraltar garrison rebelled but was beaten by the Nasrids after a short siege.

In 1436, Enrique Pérez de Guzmán y de Castilla, 2nd Count of Niebla, commanding a force of Castilians, laid siege to Gibraltar. However, the Seventh Siege of Gibraltar was a complete failure, and Enrique de Guzmán drowned while trying to escape.

The era of Muslim rule over Gibraltar finally came to an end in 1462 when the Castilians, under the command of Alonso de Arcos, launched a surprise attack on Gibraltar and returned it to Christian control.

From 1466 to 1467, Gibraltar came under siege once again as forces under the command of Juan Alonso de Guzmán, the 1st Duke of Medina Sidonia, sought to wrest control of the Rock. They were ultimately successful, but unlike in previous centuries, when the fight for Gibraltar was between Spanish and Moorish factions, this contest for Gibraltar was between rival Castilian forces.

This era of Spanish rule was also characterized by religious fervor. Muslims and Jews were hounded and expelled as Christians, following up on their Reconquista, sought to rid Spain of religious elements deemed foreign to Spanish culture.

Despite all the effort that had been put into capturing it, Gibraltar fell into disrepair. As the Moorish threat receded, so did the Rock’s strategic value, and Gibraltar became just another rocky promontory on the Spanish coast.

It was, however, still a target for the dukes of Medina-Sidonia. In 1506, Juan Alfonso de Guzmán, third Duke of Medina Sidonia, laid siege to Gibraltar after the death of the Spanish monarch, Queen Isabella. This attempt failed, and Gibraltar remained under the control of the Spanish crown.

In 1502, Queen Isabella granted Gibraltar its coat of arms. The coat of arms features a three-towered castle under which is depicted a golden key.

Enemies at the Gates

A Sea Fight with Barbary Corsairs by Laureys a Castro. Source: Wikimedia Commons

Gibraltar in the 17th century was a dangerous place to be. Barbary pirates raided the coast, and many Gibraltarians were enslaved. To add to the danger, rebellious Dutch forces became a significant enemy of Spain and sought control over Gibraltar.

In 1607, a significant naval action was fought off the coast during the Eighty Years’ War. The Battle of Gibraltar was a major Dutch victory that forced the Spaniards to call a truce. War, however, resumed a few years later, and in 1621, the Spanish won the Second Battle of Gibraltar.

Meanwhile, Barbary pirates continued to plague the area. In 1620, the Spanish allowed the English to establish a presence in Gibraltar as a base to operate against the pirates.

In 1704, Gibraltar changed hands once again. This time, it was the British who captured the peninsula as a result of action during the War of Spanish Succession. The effort was led by Admiral Sir George Rooke and Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, who, in command of an Anglo-Dutch fleet, subjected the Spanish positions to a heavy bombardment before landing troops and raising the British flag.

In 1713, British ownership of Gibraltar was made official by the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of Spanish Succession. The treaty stipulated that Gibraltar was a British possession in perpetuity. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 and the Treaty of Versailles in 1783 renewed this agreement.

Treaties such as these, however, were ignored in times of war, and the political situation in Europe was always extremely complex. During the Anglo-Spanish War from 1727 to 1729, Gibraltar became a target for Spanish conquest. After five months of besieging Gibraltar, the Spanish gave up and ended the thirteenth siege of Gibraltar.

From 1779 to 1783, Gibraltar’s defenses were again tested in what was known as the Great Siege of Gibraltar. This action was part of Spain and France’s conflict with the British during the American Revolutionary War. British forces numbered 7,500 soldiers and 12 gunboats, while the Spanish and French forces numbered 65,000 soldiers with almost 100 ships, including 47 ships of the line.

In terms of the size of the forces involved, the Great Siege can be considered to be the largest battle of the American Revolutionary War. For three years, seven months, and two weeks, the British garrison held firm, although it was by no means easy. Food was rationed, and the threat of starvation was ever-present. General George Eliot, commanding the British garrison, lived on just four ounces of rice per day as an example to his men.

It was also during this battle that Lieutenant Henry Shrapnel invented ammunition with extra bits of metal attached to increase the effectiveness in killing and wounding enemy soldiers.

During the Napoleonic Wars, Gibraltar was a vital naval base for the British fleet. The Battle of Trafalgar was fought nearby, and after his death, Admiral Lord Nelson’s body was brought to Gibraltar on board the HMS before being transported back to England.

In 1830, Gibraltar was given the status of a crown colony. This came with civil liberties and a charter of justice for the Gibraltarian people. It also marked the founding of the Gibraltar Police Force, one of the oldest police forces in the world.

In the decades that followed, Britain gained control over India. Vital trade routes via the seas prompted the reinforcement of British possessions along the way. Gibraltar and the Suez Canal became critical strategic locations for Britain to keep its trade routes safe.

Throughout the decades and centuries that followed, Gibraltar performed its vital function as a strategic British asset. From there, they could monitor all traffic going through the Straits of Gibraltar, into and out of the Mediterranean Sea.

By the beginning of the 20th century, much had been invested in making Gibraltar a major naval base. A torpedo-proof harbor was built, along with three dry docks, one of which was extended to accommodate the HMS Dreadnought, the largest battleship in the world.

During the First World War, Gibraltar fulfilled its function of supplying and maintaining convoys while at the same time keeping watch for German U-boats. On November 9, just two days before the end of the war, the pre-dreadnought HMS Britannia was torpedoed and sunk near Gibraltar by a German U-boat. This happened just two days before the Armistice came into effect, and the war ended. Fifty men perished, and 712 were rescued.

In the Second World War, Churchill ensured Gibraltar was well-stocked. Most of the civilian population was evacuated, and the base controlled the flow of naval traffic, offering support to the Allied assets in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. It served as a staging point for the North African landings conducted by the British and Americans.

Referendums

In modern times, the status of Gibraltar’s ownership has continued to be disputed, with Spain asserting that the peninsula belongs to them. The British have conducted several referendums to add credence to their claim. In 1968 and again in 2002, referendums were held to determine the fate of Gibraltar.

In 1968, 12,762 Gibraltarians voted to remain British, while only 44 voted to become part of Spain. A similar result occurred in 2002, with 17,900 votes against just 187.

The issue of Gibraltar has strained relations between the UK and Spain in the past, and from 1969 to 1985, the border between Spain and Gibraltar was closed. However, despite the debate over ownership, Spain and the UK have cordial relations.

The history of Gibraltar is indeed long and storied. Full of war and strife, much suffering and triumph have taken place under the steep cliffs of the Rock. Its legacy is enduring, and like the limestone cliffs that make up its façade, it will last.