By the 1260s, the Mongols controlled most of China, except for the Song Dynasty in southern China. Korea (Goryeo) remained independent but as a vassal state. Now Kublai Khan looked to Imperial Japan which lay not far. Kublai sent six diplomatic missions between 1268 and 1273, demanding a relationship but threatening war. The Kamakura shogunate rebuffed each effort, even beheading several Mongols.
This continual refusal to acknowledge Kublai’s authority attacked his prestige, a major insult for the world’s top power. Economically known for its gold and silver, Japan would benefit Kublai’s growing empire. Plus, Kublai sought to add Japan as a vassal state, viewing the island nation as a tributary state from the Chinese perspective.
Angered by Japan’s non-responses to his overtures, Kublai Khan in 1273 decided to subjugate Japan. Yet preparations would be needed. Though masters of mobile warfare, the Mongols required ships and expertise that only the Khan’s vassals, China and Goryeo could provide.
The Role of Korea and China in the Mongol Invasions
As subjugated nations, China and Korea had no options. Both supplied men, supplies, and ships for the invasion. Records indicate that many invading soldiers were conscripted soldiers, many reluctant. The Mongols chose Korea as the site for their initial invasion; only 124 miles of ocean separated the two nations. By late 1274, they had completed all preparations.
Mongols’ First Landing
In November 1274, the Mongols’ fleet appeared off Hakata, Japan. The Mongols first crushed samurai garrisons on the islands of Tsushima and Iki. Next, the 900 ships and 40,000 soldiers sailed for the mainland. The Kamakura Shoguns, anticipating the invasion at Hakata on Kyushu, added defenses. Samurai warriors also reinforced the local noble clans, adding thousands.
Establishing a foothold, the Mongols overpowered the samurai with superior tactics and weaponry. The samurai counterattacked fiercely, but individually, not having yet mastered mass combat. Additionally, the Mongols employed exploding shells, poisoned arrows, and more effective tactics. Unable to push the Mongols and their vassals back into the sea, the samurai still inflicted heavy casualties.
The samurai retreated, but the Mongol army halted, offering no pursuit. Reasons vary from a lack of arrows, combat losses, or the invasion being a test. The Mongols returned to their ships. That night, a typhoon struck, wiping out one-third of the fleet.
Khan’s Reaction to the Defeat
Despite this setback, Kublai Khan remained determined to conquer Imperial Japan. He refused all advice regarding future invasions, remaining undaunted. Khan did dispatch more emissaries, seeking to bring Japan into the fold. As before, the Japanese executed or dismissed the envoys.
Both sides knew a sequel was inevitable. By 1279, the Khan’s forces routed the Song Dynasty of Southern China. An anxious Japanese Shogunate built better defenses on Kyushu, close to the first attempt. The defenses included the Genko Borui, a 6-foot-high, thick wall running 12 miles.
The Second Mongol Invasion
In June 1281, the Mongols launched a two-pronged attack. Hakata Bay bore the brunt of this attack for a second time. This armada dwarfed the first invasion, involving some 3,500 vessels and 140,000 troops. Sources on actual numbers vary wildly, however. Despite fierce fighting at Hakata, the Japanese halted the Mongols’ Eastern army. The stout Genko Borui blocked them. The Mongols withdrew to wait for the Southern Route army.
Why Did Only One Mongol Army Attack?
The landings at Hakata Bay came from the Eastern Route arm commanders’ impatience. Reinforced by the massive Southern Route force sailing from China, the Mongols struck again in July. Landing on Shikanoshima Island, the Mongols made no headway. Using night raids and guerrilla tactics, the samurai continually harassed the invaders.
Despite a numerical advantage, the Mongols couldn’t get a decisive win. The samurai refused open battle when possible. Hit-and-run attacks (on land and sea), defensive fortifications, and their superior hand-to-hand fighting abilities contributed to the stalemate. The fighting dragged on into August 1281.
Why Did the Fighting End?
The Mongol invasion came to a sudden end on August 15, 1281. Again, Japan’s fate was determined by a chance typhoon. Anchored in Hakata Bay, this massive storm struck, wrecking the fleet and drowning thousands, upwards of half of all the invaders. Only a remnant of the Khan’s fleet returned to port. The samurai ruthlessly hunted down and exterminated the survivors. The surprised Japanese called these winds “kamikaze” or divine winds. Luckily for Japan, Kublai Khan turned his attentions elsewhere, ignoring Japan.
