Roman Military Ranks: From Legionary to General

From a small village on the Tiber to one of the greatest empires in history, Rome’s success rested on the might of its legions. The cornerstone of their success was found in their organization, with every soldier, from raw recruit to legion commander, having a specific task appointed to them. This rank system was one of the many ways in which Rome was able to dominate its rivals over the centuries. This article will look at the ranks found in the Roman army at the height of its power.

The Roman military evolved greatly over the centuries, from an ad hoc militia to a Greek-inspired phalanx to the maniple formation of the mid-Republic. By the time of the late Republic, consul Gaius Marius was in need of manpower and waived the previous requirement of land ownership to serve. With this change, service in the army was now available to all free Roman men regardless of property or wealth, and becoming a soldier was now a professional option. This allowed Marius to create a new military structure, which was refined over the years and codified under the reign of Augustus.

The core of the Roman army was heavy infantrymen. The smallest unit was called a contubernium, which consisted of eight men who shared a tent. Ten of these formed a century, with six centuries forming a cohort. Ten cohorts would then form a legion, the largest unit in the Roman army. This unit also consisted of one hundred and twenty cavalrymen and other supporting troops, though there were also some exceptions to this rule.

For example, the first cohort of each legion had five centuries instead of six, and each one had double the strength, with 160 men instead of 80. It is unknown if this was standard practice among all legions or if it was only in certain units due to individual circumstances.

Higher Level Officers

At the top of the hierarchy of the legion was the legatus legionis, a man from the Senatorial class who would be appointed to the role by the emperor. He would be in his early 30s and would stay in this position for about four years, though longer stints were possible if the circumstances required. His status as a member of the Senatorial class was reflected in his accommodations in the legion’s camp. Called the praetorium, this section of the camp contained rooms for the legate’s family, servants, and possibly a garden or other luxuries. As a senator, he had the right to be accompanied by five lictores carrying fasces as a symbol of his authority.

In battle, the legate wore elaborate armor and a crested helmet, plus a scarlet cloak and belt called a paludamentum and a cincticulus, making him easily identifiable by his men. In addition to military duties, the legatus was also a political position. In a province where there was only one legion assigned, he would also act as the provincial governor. If more than one legion were assigned to a province, each legion was commanded by an individual legatus, all of whom were subservient to the provincial governor.

Directly underneath the legatus legionis was the tribunus laticlavius, or broad-stripe tribune. This man would be in his late teens or early 20s and was named after the broad purple stripe on his toga, a mark of his rank as a member of the Senatorial class. Though he was the second in command of the legion, the tribunus laticlavius had no specific role and generally was there to gain military experience, a vital stepping stone in any young Roman’s political career. They were appointed either by the Senate or the emperor. In battle, they could be recognized by their white cloaks, and in camp, they had more elaborate housing than the rest of the soldiers.

The third highest rank in the legion was that of praefectus castorum, or camp prefect. Unlike the other command positions, this man was both a commoner and a professional soldier who had risen through the ranks. They were almost always drawn from the legion’s primus pilus, the senior centurion. Having spent most of his adult life in the army, the camp prefect had a wealth of experience that the legatus and tribunus laticlavius did not. His role was general overseer of the legion, and he handled much of the administration and day-to-day operations needed to keep the unit functioning. Should the legatus be out of camp or unavailable, the camp prefect would take over command of the legion. The training and readiness of the soldiers were also overseen by the camp prefect.

Under these three men were five tribuni angusiclavii, or narrow stripe tribunes. These were drawn from the equestrian class of Roman society and were named after the narrow purple stripe worn on their togas as a mark of their social standing. This position was one of the first steps in a potential political career. Many of these men stayed in the legion, becoming career soldiers. They possessed no direct command or authority over the legion but acted primarily as administrators. They were appointed to tasks such as overseeing watch duty or sitting on disciplinary tribunals.

The most famous and arguably the most important rank in the Roman Army was centurion. These were career officers from the lower classes, working their way up through the ranks, though some were drawn from the equestrian class. There were 59 centurions in each legion, each commanding an 80-man century.

There were different levels within the ranks of the centurions, the first of which was the primus pilus, or first spear. This man led the first century of the first cohort, a double-strength century of one hundred and sixty men, and was next in line to become the camp prefect. If he wasn’t already, the primus pilus was indicted into the equestrian order upon retirement. The other five centurions of the first cohort were known as the primi ordines, who outranked the other centurions in the legion.

The other centurions were given titles that hearkened back to the days of the mid-Republic and the maniple formations of old. These were the pilus prior, pilus posterior, principes prior, princepes posterior, hastatus prior, and hastatus posterior, in descending order. The pilus prior commanded the first century of a cohort and commanded the entire cohort in battle, outranking the unit’s other centurions. The exact status of a centurion could be noted by which century he led. The centurion of the first century outranked the second century’s centurion, who outranked the third, and so on. Likewise, those in the first cohort outranked the second cohort, who outranked the third, who outranked the fourth. In a legion, the primus pilus, commander of the first century of the first cohort, was the highest-ranking centurion, while the leader of the sixth century of the tenth cohort was the lowest-ranked centurion.

Most centurions earned their rank after serving in the legion for years, rising through the ranks, though sometimes they were appointed directly by the emperor, the Senate, or other high-ranking magistrate. One absolute requirement of being a centurion was literacy in Latin, since he had to understand written orders and pass them on to his men. In peacetime, the centurion was responsible for the readiness of his men, including ensuring discipline. As a badge of office, he had a vine staff, which could be used to administer corporal punishment. In one case, a centurion earned the name “Cedo Alteram,” or “give me another,” after his habit of breaking his staff over the backs of his men and then calling for a replacement. He was killed during a mutiny.

In battle, the centurion was recognized by his helmet, which had a traverse crest, and his sword, which he wore on the left side of his hip rather than the right side, as was typical of a common legionary. He would also have more elaborate armor, which included metal greaves to protect his legs, as well as a harness with his awards and decorations earned during his long service. The centurion’s primary job was to lead his men, and this was not just an expression. They would be located at the front of the century, to the left of the formation, and were expected to be the first in every charge and last in every retreat, leading by example as much as by authority. As a result, centurions suffered high casualties during their service.

Under the centurions were the principales, which are roughly equivalent to modern-day non-commissioned officers. The foremost of these was the optio. Drawn from the ranks by the century, this was the second in command of the century and would assist the centurion with administrative duties. In addition, he would also help oversee the training and discipline of the century. In battle, he would stand in the opposite position of the centurion, at the formation’s right rear, ensuring the men stayed in line, using his wooden staff and his badge of office as a way to urge the men back into line. He would also take over for the centurion should the officer be killed or wounded.

The century also had a tesserarius, named after a wax tablet called a tessera. These tablets had the passwords of the day, which the tesserarius was responsible for keeping and distributing to the necessary men, as well as directly overseeing guard duty. In battle, he would stand at the left rear of the century, helping the optio keep order. Under the tesserarius was the decanus, who was in charge of the eight men of the contubernium who shared a tent and was usually the most experienced man of the group.

Each century also had a signifer, sometimes called a vexillarius, whose role was to carry the signum, a spear that was decorated with medallions and often had a metal open hand at the top, signifying the oath of loyalty to the emperor each soldier took. This signum was used as a rallying point for the century, an easily visible symbol in the chaos of battle, making it of vital importance. The signifer could also be easily distinguished by the wearing of animal pelts as a badge of office. Off of the battlefield, the signifer was responsible for the pay and savings accounts of the legionaries. He would work closely with the cornicen, who carried a large bronze horn, which was used as a way to convey orders over the din of battle or to get the men’s attention.

Each legion also had an imagnifer, who carried a standard with the image of the emperor, a constant reminder of the oath the men swore, and an aquilifer, who carried the legion’s golden eagle standard. This was one of the most prestigious positions in the army, and losing the standard was a sign of great shame for a legion. The emperor Augustus claimed that the recovery of the legion eagles captured by the Parthians at Carrhae was one of his greatest life accomplishments, which shows how important the role was. In status, the aquilifer was between the optio and centurion. Becoming a centurion was often the next step in an aquilifer’s career.

In addition to these specific ranks, there was another, more general status within a legion, known as the immunes. These were specialists, such as blacksmiths, carpenters, siege engine operators, engineers, medical staff, clerks, and others. Because of their abilities, they would be exempt from much of the drudgery of army life, such as guard and latrine duty, and could avoid the hard labor of the common soldiers. They may also have received slightly higher pay than the rank and file. A discens was an immunes undergoing training.

Beneath all of these were the munifex, the common soldier. They made up the bulk of the Roman army, received the lowest pay, and were expected to perform any and all menial, tedious, and back-breaking tasks the army needed to function. If brave, competent, and dedicated enough, it is possible that a soldier could be noticed by his superiors and work his way through the ranks, earning more status and wealth as he climbed the hierarchy of the legions, perhaps achieving the rank of camp prefect.

Next were the triones, which were the raw recruits. During their training, which could take several months, the recruits were subject to harsh discipline and learned all the skills needed for a soldier. These included marching in formation, digging trenches, and erecting the palisade wall around the camp the Romans built every night while on the march, as well as running, swimming, some degree of horseback riding, and proficiency with their weapons, such as the pilum, a type of javelin, as well as endless drill with the sword and shield. The practice versions of these weapons were twice the weight of the normal sword and shield, building the recruit’s strength. Once properly trained, the triones would become a munifex, and be assigned to a legion, beginning his 25-year term of service.

The Romans also made use of auxiliaries, men who were not Roman citizens but fought in the legions, with citizenship as a reward for service. These soldiers could be infantry, cavalry, or sometimes both in a mixed unit. The cavalry would be formed into units called alae, or wings, which were made up of 16 turmae, and commanded by a praefectus alae. Each turma was made up of 32 cavalrymen under the command of a decurion, who had a second in command called a duplicarius. The auxiliary infantry would be arranged into cohorts and centuries, with the same ranks and positions as the regular legionaries.

This rank structure existed during the Principate, which saw Rome reach the zenith of its power. During the Crisis of the Third Century, the Roman military was reformed, with some old ranks and positions eliminated and replaced with new ones that better reflected the Roman’s new defensive posture. Regardless of the form, the organization of the legions was the core of Rome’s strength from humble origins until the fall of the Empire.