In just under two millennia, Christianity has grown from a fledgling religion to the biggest in the world, with around 2.3 billion adherents. With so many Christians and such a long time during which Christian theology has developed and refined, it is surprising that there is no consensus on what a core theological concept like atonement constitutes. Though there are theories on atonement that have much greater support than others, agreement on how to understand atonement eludes scholars and laypeople alike. We consider seven theories of atonement to understand better the issues involved.
What is Atonement?
In Christianity, atonement means reconciliation between God and man. Since sin brought separation between man and God, atonement involves dealing with that sin. The Bible presents the death of Christ as the event that worked atonement for those who believe — but what exactly did the death of Jesus do?
There are many theories on what atonement constitutes. This article will briefly consider seven prominent theories Christians have embraced over the Church era. Some have been mostly abandoned while others are closely related and focus on specific elements that theorists want to highlight. It is important to note that accepting one theory does not necessarily exclude accepting another in conjunction with it. Many more atonement theories are not included in this article.
1. Ransom Theory
“Ransom” means to pay money or some other asset of value in exchange for a person held as a prisoner. According to the Ransom Theory of atonement, the death of Jesus was a ransom paid to free the souls of fallen men who had been captured by sin/Satan. This theory developed early in Christianity and the Church Father Origen was one of its greatest proponents. Those who support this theory often reference verses such as Mark 10:45 and 1 Timothy 2:5–6 to argue their point.
The challenge this theory poses is: Who is paid the ransom, Satan, death, or evil? Several Church Fathers believed Satan was paid the ransom, but the Bible never suggests that Satan is owed, or benefits from, the payment of this ransom. The view that Satan is paid may imply that Satan somehow has equal standing with God. Due to sin, man became subject to death/evil, so understanding that Christ ransomed man from death/evil seems a more reasonable suggestion.
2. Recapitulation Theory
Recapitulation means restating, reviewing, or summing up. In the Recapitulation Theory of atonement, Jesus presents the story of Adam all over again with the difference being that where Adam sinned and fell, Jesus remained obedient unto death. The perfected recapitulation of the original tale reversed the effects of Adam’s disobedience, restoring the relationship between God and man.
This theory was an early development in Christian history with the Church Father Irenaeus being its first proponent. Some scholars criticize this theory for its lack of emphasis on the sacrificial aspects of Christ’s life. Verses that seem to support this view are, among others, Romans 5:12–19 and 1 Corinthians 15:20-22.
3. Moral Example/Influence Theory
According to this theory, which Augustine supported in conjunction with the ransom theory, the life, words, and deeds of Christ serve as an example for believers to follow. It focuses on living a life of moral purity guided by the Holy Spirit as Christ did.
It hinges on the life of Christ, not just his death like other atonement theories do. It emphasizes holiness and sanctification and highlights the death of Christ as the catalyst for societal reform. Christ’s moral example showed obedience unto death which inspires the believer to live a life reflective of the morals of Jesus. Verses that reflect these sentiments include 1 Peter 2:21 and John 13:13-16.
4. Christus Victor Theory
The Christ Victor Theory is similar to the ransom theory, though it has significant differences as well. As with the ransom theory, Christ’s death set man free from death or the devil but it was not a ransom paid. Rather, it was a display of the victory of Christ over the forces of evil that set man free from their bondage. Verses some Church Fathers referenced in support of it are Luke 13:10-17 and John 8:34-36.
Gustav Aulén, a noted theologian from the 20th century wrote about the Christ Victor Theory, explaining: “The work of Christ is first and foremost a victory over the powers which hold mankind in bondage: sin, death, and the devil.” This theory is gaining popularity again because of its claims that the death of Christ identified and exposed dominating systems in the world as corrupt and morally bankrupt. This approach resonates with adherents of liberation, feminist, and black theologies.
This view was widely held by Church Fathers until the 12th century. The Satisfaction Theory became more prominent at that time. It has been gaining traction again since the 20th century.
5. Satisfaction Theory
The Satisfaction Theory, of which Alshelm was a founder and foremost proponent in the 12th century, posited that God’s justice had to be satisfied. According to this theory, God’s justice had been violated by the falloff man and man now owed a debt to God for violating his justice. Restitution had to be made to mend the relationship, but man could not pay that debt. The death of Christ paid the debt that man owed for the violation and thus God’s justice was satisfied.
This theory was a major divergence from the Ransom Theory where God had to pay evil/death/Satan. Here, humanity owed a debt to God which Jesus paid in their stead. His death satisfied the demands of justice and man could, through faith, stand in a restored relationship with God.
6. Penal Substitution Theory
Penal refers to a penalty and to substitute is to place one in the place of another. Penal substitution is when one accepts the penalty due to another in their place. According to this theory, there was a penalty due because of sin. God had an obligation to demand that the penalty for sin be paid. In this view, God is the judge, and his wrath for the injustice of sin has to be satisfied. Humanity could not pay that penalty, and Jesus stepped in as a substitute instead of man. Jesus paid the penalty that man was unable to pay. Verses supporting this view are 2 Corinthians 5:21 and Galatians 1:3-4.
This theory is the most popular today, common among evangelicals and reformed believers, among others. A similar theory is the governmental theory which regards the punishment Jesus took as a punishment but not the complete punishment for sin. Jesus only suffered the penalty for those who will be saved, not for those who reject him. They suffer God’s wrath for their own sin.
7. Scapegoat Theory
The Scapegoat Theory is a complete departure from previous atonement theories since it does not act on God, as the Penal Substitution, the Satisfaction, and some versions of the Ransom theories do. It calls to mind the Old Testament practice surrounding the scapegoat in the sanctuary system. This theory presents Christ as a scapegoat killed for humanity. He is, therefore, the victim of the violence of the crowd that believed Jesus was guilty. When he is shown to be innocent, the crowd stands guilty for having killed the innocent man.
James Allison, prominent in developing this theory, explains it like this: “Christianity is a priestly religion which understands that it is God’s overcoming of our violence by substituting himself for the victim of our typical sacrifices that opens up our being able to enjoy the fullness of creation as if death were not.”
Atonement: In Conclusion
The theories on atonement presented above are not exhaustive, but rather representative of some of the most prominent. It is vital to note that these theories are not all mutually exclusive and throughout Christian history, Church Fathers and theologians have held some as primary and others as secondary at the same time. Some of these theories are closely related, basically being modifications or tweaks of others.
Atonement theories are no more than human attempts to understand the profoundness of the death of Christ, what it means, and the implications it holds for humanity. As such, it grapples with concepts that are not only complicated but also have great significance. Atonement is not a simple thing. It is a multi-faceted concept that deserves more study and careful consideration to gain insight.
Theories not discussed here include Deification Theory, Participatory Atonement Theory, Mystical Theory, Exemplary Theory, Solidarity Theory, Vicarious Repentance Theory, Covenant Theory, and the Kaleidoscopic Theory. The latter, suggesting that no existing other theory satisfactorily explains atonement, is probably the best approach. It considers the contributions each theory makes and argues for keeping in mind that the validity of one does not invalidate another. Each theory highlights a perspective that contributes to the overall concept of what atonement is.
