Herodian’s History of the Roman Empire starts with the observation that “in a period of 60 years, the Roman imperial power was held by more emperors than would seem possible in so short a time…” This is a preface to his history of Rome, from the death of the last “good emperor,” Marcus Aurelius, in 180 CE to the fateful year of the six emperors in 238 CE. The year marked a turning point in Roman history, as the Golden Age of imperial Rome was over, and the third-century crisis truly began.
The Soldier Emperor: Maximinus Thrax
At the start of the year 238 CE, the Roman Empire was at a low point. The reigning emperor, Maximinus Thrax, was considered to have a lowly background. He had not been a senator or even an equestrian, as the short-reigned Macrinus had been upon his accession in 217-8 CE. Instead, he was a professional soldier. He had the good fortune of being on campaign in Germania with the emperor Severus Alexander in 235 CE. Alexander was reportedly a good ruler but not an effective soldier. His army ran out of patience and confidence in the young man while campaigning against the Germanic tribes on the empire’s northern borders. Alexander was murdered, as was his ever-present mother, Julia Mammaea, and the army chose Maximinus as their new emperor.
Maximinus was reputedly of colossal size. The ever-inventive Historia Augusta claims he was so big he used his wife’s bracelets for rings and that he could knock a horse’s teeth with a single punch! But more importantly, he was a skilled soldier. His accession marked the advent of a new “type” of emperor: the soldier, or barrack, emperor, who would become increasingly common throughout the third century as Rome’s military circumstances deteriorated.
After quashing a number of revolts against his authority in 235 CE, Maximinus set about concluding Alexander’s campaign in Germania. He duly smashed the Alemanni and launched a new war deep into Germanic territory. His victories in the north earned him the title Germanicus Maximus. This also gave him the confidence to recognize his son Maximus as his heir to imperial power. Over the course of 235-6 CE, more campaigns were fought against both the Dacians and Sarmatians.
Uprising in Africa: Gordian I and Gordian II
The Roman Empire in the early decades of the third century was vast, stretching from the fringes of Scotland in the north through to the edge of the Sahara in the south. Controlling such a great territory was one of the principal challenges faced by an emperor. Ideally, they would be able to call on a retinue of capable, loyal administrators, especially from among their own senatorial class. Maximinus Thrax, of course, was not a senator. It is perhaps unsurprising, therefore, that despite his popularity among his soldiers, he was not universally loved. His reign was perceived to be oppressive, and soon, discontent would erupt into violence.
The catalyst for the political turmoil was a landowner’s revolt in the North African city of Thysdrus. Known today as El Djem, the Tunisian city is famous for its spectacular amphitheater. The city’s procurator, on the orders of Maximinus, had been orchestrating an extremely severe regime of taxation and fines. The procurator’s attempts to extort the wealthy reached a breaking point. A mob of residents formed. In the violence that ensued, the procurator was murdered. The residents of Thysdrus then rounded on the elderly senator, Gordian, and proclaimed him their emperor. Given his advanced age, Gordian was initially reluctant. He acquiesced on the condition that his son, Gordian II, be elevated with him.
The most striking detail of the provincial elevation of the Gordians was that they were recognized by the senate back in Rome. This can be taken as a clear indication of Maximinus’ unpopularity with the senators. However, not all were disloyal to the emperor. The governor of the neighboring African province of Numidia, Capelianus, was keen to strike against Gordian, not least because of a personal grudge against the usurper. Although he could only draw on the support of a single legion, the III Augusta, Capelianus’ forces were far more experienced and skillful than the militia that marched out to confront him.
The Battle of Carthage in 238 CE was a disaster for the Gordians. The younger emperor, Gordian II, was killed in the fighting. Devastated by the loss of his son and in a desperate situation, Gordian I hanged himself. He became the first emperor since Otho, in the year of the four emperors in 69 CE, to have killed himself.
A Misjudged March on Rome: The Siege of Aquilaea
By now, it was the spring of 238 CE, and the empire had already been ruled by three emperors. The senate, however, decided to stick to their guns. With both the Gordians dead, it would have been prudent to mollify Maximinus. Instead, the senate ordered the deification of both Gordian I and II while also condemning Maximinus as a public enemy. Furious, Maximinus abandoned his winter camp at Sirmium and marched south. His plan was to smash the treacherous senate. But as he crossed into the Italian peninsula, he quickly ran into problems.
The emperor was unwilling to march past the city of Aquileia, fearing that the rebels there would harass his armies. Therefore he laid siege to the city, which proved protracted and abortive. The Aquileians had no intention of surrendering. According to Herodian, the resistance they put up was fierce, with Maximinus’ men doused in pitch and olive oil and suffering terrible burns. Disaffection grew, not helped by rumors that all of Italy was now united in arms against its emperor. Fear and panic now spread, compounding the poor morale from the abortive siege.
In May 238 CE, a group of soldiers surprised Maximinus in his quarters, and he was slain, along with his son and heir, Maximus. Their corpses were mutilated, and their heads were sent to Rome, an event celebrated on a striking piece of creative numismatic graffiti. Once they arrived at the imperial capital, the heads of Maximinus Thrax and his sons were greeted by the senate and the new emperors.
An Imperial Triumvirate: Pupienus, Balbinus, & Gordian III
Having declared Maximinus a public enemy, the senate had also been quick to act to recognize a new emperor. Lacking any standout candidate and desperate to have any leadership to confront the advancing Maximinus, they elected two elderly senators, Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus and Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus. These were emperors four and five of the turbulent year. Pupienus had served as consul iterum, for the second time, during the reign of Severus Alexander. Balbinus had enjoyed a similar honor in 213 CE, during the reign of Caracalla.
Both were entrenched members of the senatorial aristocracy. They were also, perhaps as a result of this, not a popular choice among the urban plebs in Rome. When they were presented to the populace of the imperial capital, the two new emperors may have imagined a slightly warmer reception. They were greeted by a mob who hurled stones at them! Consequently, to appease the mob, it was decided that the thirteen-year-old Gordian III, the grandson of Gordian I, would be nominated as the heir to power.
Gordian Triumphant: End of the Year of Six Emperors
Although he did not confront Maximinus in battle, since the former emperor’s soldiers had turned on their leader, Pupienus had been sent north from Rome by the senate to orchestrate the campaign against the emperor-turned-enemy. After Maximinus’ death in June, he accepted the surrender of the soldiers and pardoned them. He then returned to Rome, only to find that the unrest that had greeted his and Balbinus’ accession had not been quelled. Rome remained in uproar, with the elderly Balbinus unable to restore civility. Eventually, the presence of the two emperors seemed to calm the situation, but only temporarily.
As the example of Maximinus had shown, the imperial populace respected an emperor who could command the armies and win great victories. It was this that had allowed him to occupy the position of Severus Alexander. It was his failure at Aquileia that cost him his life. Perhaps conscious of their initial unpopularity, Pupienus and Balbinus began to plan a joint campaign. Pupienus would campaign in the east, against the Parthians, and Balbinus to the north, against the Germanic tribes.
Their plans would never come to fruition. The Praetorian Guards, which, over the course of the late second century, had grown accustomed to ensuring the emperors recognized their special privileges, grew tired of the old men who had been thrust into office by the senate alone. The guardsmen attacked Pupienus and Balbinus, seized them, and stripped them naked. The old men were then dragged through the streets of the capital. Robbed of their dignity and a pitiable sight, the praetorians executed the two emperors. Together, they had ruled for just 99 days.
End of 238: A Looming Crisis
The murder of Pupienus and Balbinus left just one emperor remaining, Gordian III. His reign would be bedeviled by the same political instability that had wracked the fateful year 238 CE. Africa, which had once propelled the Gordian family to prominence, now attempted to remove it from power. Fortunately for Gordian, the revolt of Sabinianus in 240 CE was quickly quashed.
But there was to be no respite for the young emperor, and affairs external to the empire were also deteriorating at an alarming rate. In particular, the Sassanid dynasty, which had taken over the Parthian’s mantle as Rome’s imperial rivals in the east, was becoming aggressive once again. Gordian’s first foray against the Sassanids was successful, culminating in victory at the Battle of Resaena in 243 CE. The resulting optimism was to be short-lived. The second campaign, a retaliatory Roman invasion of Sassanid territory, was checked at Ctesiphon. In 244 CE, at the Battle of Misiche, Gordian was killed. He was just 19 years old.
Although the specifics of Gordian’s death are unknown, it left the Romans in a precarious position. The new emperor, Philip, was forced to purchase peace. This confirmed Roman weakness for the Sassanids, and the eastern frontier would be a pressure point throughout the third century. And it was not the only one. In 238 CE, it was clear that chaos was looming as leaders were no longer made in Rome but by armies in the field. Combined, these pressures would lead Rome to the brink of collapse several times over the next 50 years.
